Kṛṣnamiṡra’s Prabodhacandrodya - A Critical Introduction

Sita K Nambiar

We earlier posted certain sections of Krsna Misra’s 11th century allegorical drama, Prabodhacandrodya, in which the character Cārvāka makes an appearance.  Though Prabodhacandrodaya does caricature Carvaka/Lokayta philosophy,  the play is an important source of our present day knowledge about materialist philosophy in ancient India.

We now reproduce parts of the critical introduction written by Dr Sita K Nambiar for her translation. 

    

Chapter I

General

The author and his play 

In the 19^th century Kṛṣnamiṡra’s Prabodhacandodaya was widely read by European Indologists and as a result the worked was translated into several European languages¹.  At least one scholar² to my knowledge has written a study on it, investigating it as a drama.  But the philosophical contents of this play have not yet been specially treated.  I am undertaking this work with the hope that it may contribute to tracing the history of the development of Indian philosophy.

This play can be dated with some precision from the author’s references in the Prologue.  It was produced at the instruction of one Gopala in the presence of his friend Kirtivarnman, whom Gopala had restored to his kingdom after defeating the Cedi king Karna³.  Now the Deogarh inscription of the same Kirtivarman of Jejakbhukti is dated 1098 AD.  According to the Mahoba inscription Kirtivarman defeated Laksmikarna, i.e, the Cedi king Karna of Tripuri, who is mentined in an inscription, dated 10452 AD.  In the Vikramankadevacarita 1819 Karna is called Kalah Katanjaragiripateh, “The Death of the (Candella) king of Kalanjara”, which corresponds to Kṛṣnamiṡra’s statement⁴.  Gopala might have been an ally through whose valour Kirtivarman defeated Karna, but the commentator Mahesvara says that he was the Commander-in-Chief (senapati) of Kiritvarman and was a Brahmana.  Most probably the play was written between 1042 and 1098⁵, and it can be concluded that the author belonged to the second half of the 11^th century, perhaps even the beginning of the 12^th century.  According to a tradition⁶, Kṛṣnamiṡra was an ascetic belonging to the Hamsa order of the Advaita School and had many disciples.  One of them was interested in kavya but not in philosophy.  Kṛṣnamiṡra is said to have written his dram in order to teach him the Advaita doctrine.

Prabodhacandrodaya is an allegorical drama. Kṛṣnamiṡra was not the first Indian poet to write an allegorical play, though not much is known about the earlier literature of this class.  There are the fragments of a Buddhist allegory with Kirti (Fame), Dhrti (Firmness) and Buddhi (Wisdom) as characters, which was perhaps written by Asvaghosa⁷.  Then, there is an allegorical play called Agamadambara, still in manuscript, written by Jayanta, the author of the Nyayamanjari, who lived in the 9^th century AD.  After Kṛṣnamiṡra, however, quite a number of allegorical plays were composed⁸.

The name Prabodhacandrodaya has been translated variously by various scholars.  J. Taylor translated it as “Rise of the Moon of Intellect”, Winternitz as “Erkenntnismondaufgang⁹”, Macdonell as “Rise of the Moon of Knowledge¹⁰”, SK De as “The Moonrise of True Knowledge¹¹”, and Dr. Boissevain as “Maaansopgang der Ontwaking¹²”.  The word prabodha requires some discussion.  Taylor’s translation of it as intellect is not satisfactory.  Winternitz’ and Macdonell’s translation as Erkenntnis and knowledge is certainly nearer to the correct mening.  However, if we accept it, we have to render vidya by some other term, but vidya is properly knowledge.  Boissevain’s translation as “Ontwaking”, ie Awakening, which is literal, seems to be the best rendering of the Saskrit word. 
 

The awakening treated in the play is a sort of spiritual realization. Pursusa (Man), who had forgotten his identity with the Supreme Being, Paramesvara, and had fallen as it were, into a deep slumber, is awakened by Vidya or Knowledge to realize his identity.

As for the question how the compound prabodhacandrodya has to be split, there are two possibilities:

1.      Prabodha eva candrah prabodhacandrah, tasya udayah. Or

2.      Candrasya udayah candrodayah, prabodha eva candrodayah, prabodhacandrodayah.

 In the first case, awakening is identified with the moon and in the second case with the moon-rise. Taylor and Macdonell follow the first, while De and Boissevain follow the second.  Winternitz’ translation is quite as ambiguous as the original.  It can mean  either Erkenntnismond-Aufgang or Erkenntnis-Mondaufgang. What Kṛṣnamiṡra means, however, is clearly prabodhacandasya udayah, “the rise of the moon which is awakening”.   This can be proved by a passage of the play itself.  In the first act¹³ the compound prabodhacandra is used by Kama: Prabodhacandrena bhratra … Therefore, I would translate Prabodhacandrodaya as “The Rise of the Moon of (spiritual) Awakening”.

There are several edition of the play, which I have listed in the Bibliography. Though the text of the Nirnayasagar edition is not always the best, I have used this edition throughout and given references according to it. Where its readings seemed unacceptable, I have in a few places preferred those of the Trivandrum edition.  The commentaries which accompany the text in the Nirnayasagar edition, Candrika and Prakasa, I founduselful in several places.  The commentary of the Trivandrum edition, Natakabharana, has also ben consulted.

Before analyzing the philosophical contents of the dram, I will first give a brief survey of the plot.  In the analysis of the philosophical contents, a compromise seemed advisable between a systematic arrangement, necessary for a clear presentation of the doctrine, and an arrangement following the succession of events, corresponding to the process of gradual enlightenment represented in the play.  Such matter of philosophical interest as could not find place under the compromise adopted, will be treated in a concluding chapter, which is arranged according to some important characters

 Notes:

1. Cp. Winternitz, Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur, Vol.3 p. 252 n.1 
2. Boissevain. Cp. The Bibiliography 
3. Hultzsch and Kielhorn, in: Epigraphia Indica I, pp. 217ff., 325; VA Smith, in: Indian Antiquary XXXVII, 1908, p.143
4. Cp. Konow, Drama, p. 92, 103
5.  Levi, Sylvain: Le theatre indian, Paris, 1890, p. 232 ff
6. Krishnamacharya - History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam Press, Madras, 1937, p.676
7. See Winternitz, Geschichte, Vol. III, p. 181 f.
8. See Dasgupta, History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 480 ff.; Winternitz Geschichte, Vol. III, p. 256 ff.
9. Winternitz, Geschichte, Vol. III, p. 252
10. Macdonell, A History of Sanskrit Literature, William Heinemann, London, 1905 ,  p. 366
11. Dasgupta Surendranath, A History of Sanskrit Literature, Calcutta, 1947, p. 482 
12. Boissevain, Prabodhacandrodaya. 
13. Prabodhacandrodaya, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1935, p.34

 

Chapter IV

Non-Vedic Schools

The Carvaka or Lokayata 

Kṛṣnamiṡra deals with this school at great length.  Lokayata is the system founded by Vacaspati, also known as Brihastpati, who handed it over to Carvaka, who in turn spread it in the world through his disciples¹.  The word lokayata means “what prevails among men”.  The Lokayata or Carvaka system is materialistic.  It is the foremost enemy of all religious and philosophical schools based on the Vedas.  According to Krsnamistra, Buddhism, Jainism, and the Kapalika sect are based on the Lokayata system².  Therefore, once this system is overthrown, the schools and sects derived from it are also ruined.  All the Vedic schools in the play join together to defeat the Carvaka system.

As to the question whether there is a soul separate from the body, we get the answer in the following verse, put in the mouth of Delusion who is depicted in the play as the great friend of Carvaka: “(The view) that there is a soul separate from the body, which on reaching the other world enjoys rewards, is (like) the hope to get tasty fruits from the big flower of a tree in the sky³”.  The opinion that after the death of the body no soul remains is expressed in the following: “The many talkative believers (astikas) who jabber in vain that the thing which does not exist, exists, condemn the truth-speaking non-believers (nastikas)⁴.  Oh, look, has anyone in reality seen a soul separate from the body, which has formed the intelligence as transformation (of itself)⁵”.

The materialist does not believe in the caste system (varnabheda).  He does not recognize moral precepts.  He teaches: “If the bodies are like in their different parts, the mouth, etc, how can there be a hierarchy of castes?  We do not accept any difference between a woman or wealth belonging (to us or) to somebody else.  Only those who are devoid of manliness consider whether an act should be done or no, when it entails injury, approaching women at one’s pleasure and seizing the wealth of  others⁶”.

According to the Carvaka, the only means of knowledge is perception⁷.  The elements are earth, water, fire, and air.  Wealth and pleasure⁸ are the sole aims of man.  The elements move through original impulse. There is no other world.  Emancipation is death.  Knowledge consists only on statecraft.  Varta or the science of agriculture and trade is included in this⁹.  The three Vedas are incoherent talk of cheats¹⁰.  If their teachings about sacrifice lead to heaven, the processes similar to sacrifices must lead to the same result: “If sacrifices obtain heaven by the destruction of the sacrificial matter through the action of the officiating (pries), then the trees burnt by the forest fire will bear ample fruit¹¹”.  The teachings of the Veda are nothing but nonsense:  “If it is assumed that an animal slain (in sacrifice) goes to heaven, why does not the sacrifice forthwith immolate his own father¹²”?  “If sraddha (offering of rice-balls to a dead person) produces gratifications to being who are dead, then oil may rear the flame of an extinguished light¹³”.  “It is the reasoning of fools that the pleasure which arises to men from contact with sensible object is to be relinquished as accompanied by pain. What man seeking his true interest would fling away the berries of paddy, rich with the finest white grains, because they are covered with husks and dust¹⁴”?  “Brhaspati says that the oblation in the fire, the three Vedas, the carrying of three sticks tied together, and smearing oneself with ashes are the means of livelihood of those who are devoid of intelligence and manliness¹⁵”.

The Carvaka classifies the Vedantins along with the Buddhists:  “If the Vedantas (i.e the upanisads), which accept things contradictory to what is established through the means of knowledge, sense perception, etc, are authoritative scriptures (sastra), then what wrong are the Buddhists doing¹⁶?” The Vedantin says that the world which he knows through the means of knowledge is unreal.  That implies a contradiction. The Buddhist, on the other hand, says that everything has only momentary existence, which is just as contradictory to experience as the Vedantin’s view.

Notes:

1. Pra. Ca, p. 71. The word Carvaka means “sweet-tongued”. 
2.  Pra. Ca. V p. 176 f.
3. Pra. Ca. II. 16 akasatarroh prasunam, more commonly khopuspa is an example given usually for a thing which does not and can never exist. 
4. The words astika and nastika specifically denote those who accept, and those who do not accept, the authority of the Vedas. 
5. Pra. Ca. II v.17. Cp.Madhava Sayana: Sarvadarsanasamgraha (S.D.S), Calcutta, 1908, . p.2 caitanyavisista eva atma. The reading varsmanam in the Nirnayasagar edition is a misprint for varsmano. 
6. Pra. Ca II v.18 
7. There is a work of the materialist school called Tattvopaplavasimha, by Jayarasi Bhatta (8^th century) (published in Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, 1940), which does not accept any pramana, not even pratyaksha.  This shows that the Carvakas were divided among themselves, some accepting perception and some accepting no valid means of knowledge at all. 
8. Artha and kama, dhrama and moksha are dismissed. 
9. Pra. Ca. p. 71: dandanitir eva vidya. Atraiva vartantarbharvati. Cp. Kautilya, Arthasastra:  anviksiki trayi carta dandanitis ceti vidyah (I. 2.1); varta dandanitis ceti barhaspatyah (I.2.4); dandanitir eva vidyety ausanasah (I.2.6); tasyam hi sarvavidyarambhah pratibaddha iti (I.2.7); krsipasupalye vanijya ca varta (I. 4.1); Brhaspatisutra 1.3: dandanitir eva vidya.  It is to be noted that whereas the Brahaspati of Kautilya accepts varta and dandaniti the author of the Brhaspatisutras, who is obviously a theist, accepts only dandaniti, like the Carvaka of Krsnamistra and Kautilya’s Ausanasa. Cp. Also Frauwallner, Philosophie II p. 296: “…die enge Verbindung des Materialismus mit der politischen Theorie.” Also cp. Ruben, Maaterialismus. 
10. Cp. S.D.S. p.3: dhurtapratapas trayi. 
11. Pra. Ca II. V. 19. This verse is quoted verbatim in the Sarvamatasamgraha. 
12. Pra. Ca. II v.20 Cp. S.D.S p.6
13. Pra. Ca. II v.21 Cp. S.D.S p.6, where the second line of the verse is different. 
14. Pra. Ca. II v.23 Cp. S.D.S p.3 
15. Pra. Ca. II v.26 Cp. S.D.S p.3 and Sriharsa, Naisadhiacarita 17.39.  The verse also occurs in the Sarvamatasamgraha and in the Sarvasiddhantasamgraha attributed to Sankara.  All these works must have quoted from a work of Brahaspati which must have been extant as late as the 12^th century, in which both Sriharsa and Madhava, the author of S.D.S, lived. 
16. Pra. Ca. II v.4. This verse too is quoted in the Sarvamatasamgraha.

------------------------------
Pra. Ca.:

1. Krsna Misra: Prabodhacandrodayam with  the commentaries Candrika and Prakasa, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1935
2. Krsna Misra: Prabodhacandrodayam with the commentary Natakabharana, Ed. by K. Sambasiva Sastri, Trivandrum Sanskrit series LXXII, Trivandrum, 1936.
3. Krsnamisra: Prabodhacandrodaya, Ed. by F.A. Brockhaus, Lipsiae, 1845

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Carvaka Philosophy in Prabodhacandrodaya

Almost all of what we know today about Cārvāka/Lokāyata philosophy is from secondary sources – most of which are quoted by opponents of the philosophy in order to refute or even ridicule its arguments. Not surprisingly, there was a tendency in these works to caricature the philosophical stance of these ancient Indian materialists. Yet, these being the only sources on which we have to base to reconstruct the philosophy, they – despite being outright caricatures – are indispensable for anybody who wants to study Cārvāka/Lokāyata philosophy.

Krsna Misra’s  11th century allegorical drama, Prabodhacandrodya, is one such source. We reproduce those sections of the drama in which the character Cārvāka makes an appearance.

The earliest English translation of this work is Prabodhacandrodaya or Rise of the Moon of Intellect: A Spiritual Drama of J. Taylor. The present extract we publish here, however, is from the translation done by Dr Sita K Nambiar and published by Motilal Banarasidass in 1971. Dr Nambiar writes in the Preface to her translation that her "translation is based on the fairly reliable Sanskrit text published by Panduranga Javaji, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1935.  But at certain places the  text is defective and as a result it defied attempts for the correct translation. But such occasions are few and far between.  In general I have kept close to the original and tried to preserve the spirit of the text without violating the English expression".

Dr Sita K Nambiar was the Principal of Daulat Ram College of Delhi University. She was a scholar of the Deutsche Akademische Austausch Dienst and received her Ph.D from Bonn University in 1960.

In a future post, we will reproduce a part of the critical introduction written by Dr Nambiar for hertranslation. We are also planning to upload the translation of J. Taylor as soon as it becomes available to us.

(Then enters Grand Delusion pompously with his attendants)

Grand Delusion (महामोह ):            

(Smiling). The fools are without any check on them. 

“(The view) that there is a soul separate from the body, which on reaching the other world enjoys rewards, is (like) the hope to get tasty fruits from the big flower of a tree in the sky.” (16)

This world is deceived by the ignorant who accept the existence of what is the mere creation of their own imagination. For –

Them any talkative believers (āstikās) who jabber in vain that a thing which does not exist, exists, condemn the truth-speaking non-believers (nāstikās). Oh, consider from the point of reality.  When the body is destroyed, has any one seen a soul separate from it which acquired consciousness as result of transformation (due to certain combination). (17)

They deceive not only the world but also themselves. For –

If the bodies are alike in their different parts, the mouth, etc., how can there be a hierarchy of castes?  We do no accept any difference between a woman and wealth belonging (to us or) to somebody else.  Only those who are devoid of manliness consider whether an act should be done or not, whether it entails harm, whether to approach women at one’s pleasure and seize the wealth of others. (18).

(After thinking, proudly). By all means materialism alone is the science, in whose view, the only means of knowledge is perception. The elements are earth, water, fire, and air. Wealth and pleasure are the sole aims of man.  The elements move through original impulse.  There is no other world.  Emancipation is death.  This science was composed by Vācaspati who followed our view and has given it to the Materialist. This science is popularized in the world by him through his disciples and their disciples.

(Then enter the Materialist and his disciples)

Materialist (चार्वाक) : 

My child, know that knowledge consists only of statecraft.  The science of Agriculture and trade is included in this.  The three Vedas are incoherent talk of cheats.  There is no difference just because they postulate heaven.

See –

If sacrifices obtain (for one) heaven by the destruction of the sacrificial matter through the action of the officiating priest, the trees burnt by the forest fire will bear ample fruit? (19).

Moreover –

If it is assumed that an animal slain (in sacrifices) goes to heaven, why does not the sacrifice immolate his own father? (20)

And –

If srāddha (offering of rice balls to a dead person) produces gratification to being who are dead, then oil may rear the flame of an extinguished light. (21).

Disciple (शिष्य) : 

Venerable teacher, if the sole aim of man is to eat and drink then why do these ascetics renounce the worldly pleasure and afflict themselves with severe tortures caused by parāka (a sacrificial sword) sāntapana (a kind of rigid penance) and taking food once in three days (as an expiatory act)?

Materialist:

These fools who are deceived by the Vedas composed by cheats are contented with the sweetmeats of hopes.  See,

Where is the embrace of the long-eyed ones, the embrace pressing the shoulders with one’s arms and which is pleasing because of the prominent breasts compressed and where is begging, fasting, penance, exposure to the  burning heat of the sun which emaciate the body of these fools (22).

Disciples:

Revered sir, these ascetics say that worldly pleasure is to be given up because it is mingled with miseries.

Materialist: 

(Laughing) This is the expression of foolishness of these human animals.

It is the reasoning of fools that the pleasure which arises in men from contact with sensible objects is to be relinquished as they are accompanied by pain.  What man seeking his true interest would fling away the berries of paddy, rich with finest white grains, because they are covered with husks and dust? (23).

Grand Delusion: 

Well, It is after a long time, my ears are gratified by words which are authoritative (Looking with joy). Oh! It is my dear friend Materialist.

Materialist: 

(Looking) This is king Delusion. (Going near). May the king be victorious!  I, Materialist salute you.

Grand Delusion: 

Welcome Materialist, be seated here.

Materialist: 

(sits) Kali prostrates before you.

Grand Delusion: 

Ah! Kali, unimpaired blessing be upon you!

Materialist: 

By your grace all is good. He has accompanied everything (ordered by you) and wishes to (worship at) your feet.  For –

After receiving the great command (from you) and having accomplished it by destroying the enemies he is now happy and delighted and with his great joy in countenance feels blessed and prostrates himself at the lotus feet of the Lord. (24).

Grand Delusion: 

And what has that Kali achieved?

Materialist:

Lord, he caused the virtuous forsake the path shown by the Vedas and act according to their own wish.  It is the glory of my Lord neither mine nor Kali’s for this achievement. (25).

The people of the north and west have forsaken the three Vedas, what to speak of tranquility and self-restraint.  In other places too the three Vedas are there just as the means of livelihood.  The Acārya (Brhaspati) has said:

“The oblations in the fire, the three Vedas, the carrying of three sticks tied together, and smearing oneself with ashes are the means of livelihood of those who are devoid of intelligence and manliness. (26).

There in Kuruksetra and other places my Lord need no fear the birth of Knowledge or Spiritual Awakening even in a dream”

Grand Delusion: 

Well done.  That great holy place is rendered useless.

Materialist: 

My Lord.  There is something more to be reported.

Grand Delusion: 

What is it?

Materialist: 

There is a Yogini of great power called Devotion to Visnu.  Though her popularity is lessened by Kali, we cannot even look at those who are blessed by her.  Therefore, my Lord, you have to be on your guard against her.

Grand Delusion: 

(In fear to himself). Oh! It is difficult to destroy here whose great power is well known and who is my natural enemy.  Well. (to himself).  Sometimes drastic action has to be taken.  (Loudly)  Then my dear, do not have any doubts.  Where can she appear when Concupiscence and Anger are her enemies?

Materialist: 

Even then one who desires victory should not remain unguarded even where the enemy is weak.

For –

Even a weak enemy may prove to be a fierce one in the end and inflict a mortal would like a small thorn that afflicts the foot. (27).

Grand Delusion: 

(Looking behind the curtain)  Who is there?

(Enter the gatekeeper)

Gatekeeper (दौवारिक) : 

Victory to my Lord.  Let my Lord command.

Grand Delusion: 

Oh! ‘Companion of the wicked’, Go and direct Concupiscence, Anger, Greed, Arrogance, Spite and other that they should be on guard and kill the Yogini – Devotion to Visnu.

Gatekeeper: 

As your Lord commands.

(Exit)

(A man enters with a letter)

Man: I come from Utkala.  There near the ocean there is a temple of God call Purusottama. I have been sent to the king by my masters, Arrogance, Deceit and Conceit.  (Looking) This is Varanasi.  This is the place of the king.  I shall enter (Entering).   Here the master is talking something with  Materialist.  I shall go near him (Going near)  Victory to my Lord.  Look at this letter which needs attention.

(Gives the letter)

Grand Delusion: 

(Taking the letter)  Where do you come from?

Man: 

I have come from Purusottama.

Grand Delusion: 

(To himself)  Must be something very serious. (Aloud) Materialist go.  Be alert while doing whatever is required.

Materialist: 

As you command.

(Exit)

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